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Heritage
The "Waterfall Gardens" as Heritage
Dr David Jones argues the case for
the Botanic Gardens
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The cultural landscape of George Town, Penang, Malaysia,
embraces the historic enclave of George Town as well as a range of
other significant colonial vestiges adjacent to the entrépôt.
Many of these landscapes cannot be isolated from the énclave as
they are integral to and part of its cultural mosaic and character.
Perhaps the most important are the Penang Hill hill-station landscape
and the ‘Waterfall' Botanic Gardens. The latter is an under-valued
‘garden of the empire'- a garden that significantly underpinned the
development and historical and botanical stature of the Singapore Botanic
Gardens.
This paper reviews the cultural significance of colonial
botanic gardens as they were established around the world during
the scientific explosion of the late 1800s. It addresses their
position within World Heritage listings, and considers the role, significance
and importance of the ‘Waterfall' Botanic Gardens within this context,
and within the concept of ‘cultural landscapes'.
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Tanjong Penaigre
IT IS INCORRECTLY PERCEIVED THAT the Singapore Gardens,
given its association with Singapore and Raffles, was the first
botanic or economic botanic gardens in the Straits Settlements.
Instead, that is Penang's contribution. There were two botanic
gardens established on Pulau Pinang prior to the establishment of the
present Garden in the Waterfall River (Sungai Ayer Terjun) valley.
Each was purposefully created to cultivate both productive crop plants
and trees, as well as select aesthetic and 'wayside trees'.
George Town was established on Pulau Pinang (Penang Island),
in the Straits of Melaka (Malacca), on August 10, 1786, by Captain
Francis Light, naming the island the Prince of Wales Island. The
name Penang derives from the Tanjong Penaigre Cape, upon which George
Town was situated, after the hardy ironwood Penaga (Mesua ferrea) that
were growing on the site. The settlement was a dream for Light
and a business opportunity for his partner, James Scott. The settlement
enabled the East India Company to establish a strategic base to challenge
the Dutch spice trade and maritime supremacy in the Straits.
To explore the spice market the Company appointed Christopher
Smith (d. 1806) as Botanist to Penang in 1794 to establish the spice
gardens on Pulau Pinang under Lieutenant Governor Sir George Leith.
Smith, originally trained at Kew Gardens, planted a small garden
of "20 orlongs" (10.5 ha) in 1794 in the middle Ayer Itam valley and
a larger garden, of "300 orlongs" (158 ha), at "Sungei Cloan" (
sic ; Sungai Keluang); both on Pulau Pinang.
The exact location of both Gardens is unclear. In 1796 Smith
was sent to the Moluccas, to serve as Superintendent of their Botanic
Gardens, to collect specimens of nutmeg and clove for planting in the
Penang Gardens.
By 1800 there were some 1,300 plants in these two Gardens,
with Sungai Keluang now predominantly growing pepper plants.
The ship 'Amboyna', that arrived that year from Ambon, provided a further
15,000 clove and 1,500 nutmeg trees together with Canary Nuts (Canarium
commune) and Sugar Palms (Arenga pinnata, syn. A saccharifera).
The size of this undertaking prompted the enlargement of the Ayer Itam
gardens and Residency grounds and the return to George Town by Smith
to supervise this enterprise rather than collecting specimens in the
region for the Company. By 1802 Smith reported that there were 19,000
nutmeg and 6,250 clove trees under his supervision with a collection of
some 33,000 "spice plants," and 25,026 nutmeg trees. The Gardens supported,
in the 1804-05 financial year, 80 coolies and a operational budget of $11,909.
Nutmeg and clove
William Hunter (1755-1812) records the existence of these Gardens,
and many of its plantings, in his "Outline of a Flora of Prince of Wales
Island" in c.1803. Hunter, Surgeon to the East India Company,
and a keen naturalist, prepared this manuscript after an extensive visit
to George Town, including "the Hon'ble Company's spice plantations ...
[at] Ayer Hitam ... and Soongey Clooan [sic]," for which the
latter had some 3,000 black pepper (Piper nigrum) vines growing on pole
structures made from "Munkoodu" (Morinda citrifolia) and "Dudup" (Erythrina
corallodendron) trees. Included in these Gardens were teak (Tectona
grandis), Cinnamon, the first flowing Mangosteen (Garcina mangostana),
Bixa orelleana, Dillenai secunda, Artabotrys odoratissima, and Coleus
scuellarioides.
Captain James Low in 1836 described the Gardens during this
period as follows:
... embracing one hundred and thirty acres of land, lying
on the slopes which skirt the base of the hill near Amie's Mills, a romantic
spot and well watered by a running stream now called Ayer Putih.
This plantation, in some respects a mere nursery, contained in the
above year [1802] the number of 19,628 nutmeg plants, varying from
one up to four years old, 3,460 being four years of age. There
were also 6,259 clove trees, of which 669 were above six, and under
seven years old.
This description points to the Ayer Itam Gardens being on the
north side of Jalan Ayer Itam near the present Hye Keat Estate and
Reservoir Gardens.
Smith returned to George Town in 1805 to be appointed Superintendent
of the Botanic Gardens (1805-06), accompanied by 71,266 nutmeg and
55,263 clove plants together with additional Canary Nut and Sugar Palm
specimens. George Town had recently been elevated to the status
of India's fourth Presidency, and Lieutenant-Governor Leith had been
succeeded in 1803 by the reckless Colonel Robert T. Farquhar.
Smith died unexpectedly in George Town soon after his return, and Farquhar
sold the Garden's contents at 12 days' notice for $9,656. Most
of the specimens were removed and replanted elsewhere by various purchasers.
Between 1806 to 1822 the settlement possessed no Gardens.
Following Raffles' insistence to the then Governor of Penang, William
Edward Phillips, the second Gardens was established in 1822.
Raffles' interest in this endeavour was perhaps also prompted by his
residency in George Town as Secretary to the Prince of Wales Government
between 1805 to 1810, and the botanical discoveries on the Island by East
India Company botanist William Jack (1795-1822) that were communicated
to both him and his friend, Wallich. Wallich recommended the appointment
of Penang Free School Headmaster and amateur botanist, George Porter, on
a salary of $100, to manage these Gardens. Porter, formerly a member
of the Calcutta Gardens staff, had accompanied Wallich to Singapore in
1822. Wallich had named a dwarf Dracena, Dracena porteri, after Porter.
While Porter accepted the position of Superintendent he was nominally in
charge under a local judge, a Mr. Leycester, who was appointed Curator.
These Gardens were also sited in the Ayer Itam valley; possibly on
the same government land reserve.
In 1826 the settlements of Penang, Malacca and Singapore were
incorporated into the Straits Settlements colony. The administration
of this colony remained initially in George Town before shifting
to Singapore in 1832.
Sold
for 1250 rupees
The Gardens
were tended until the then Governor, Murchison, sold them for 1,250 rupees
in 1834 believing that they were not producing adequate vegetables
to supply the Residency kitchens. But the reason is more likely
to be due to Straits Settlements cost-cutting measures executed by the
Governor-General, Lord George Bentinck. With its sale, Porter
apparently returned to his former position as Headmaster. In 1867
the colony was transferred from Indian jurisdiction to the Colonial
Office in Singapore.
In mid-1884 Charles Curtis accepted the position of Assistant
Superintendent of Forests and Gardens, Penang District, under the
Straits Settlements administration, and served in this position until
1903. The appointment "was through the recommendation of Kew"
Gardens on the basis of his "botanical activities."
Curtis was placed in charge of the Penang region of the Forest
Department, which included the 'Waterfall Gardens', together with
some 3,575 ha of Forest Reserves in late 1884. Between 1885
to 1903 he was largely responsible for these reserves. Although
changes in both areas and administrative entities occurred over this
time the 'Waterfall Gardens' was his chief interest and passion.
The Forest Reserves included areas reserved for recreational, fuel, forestry
harvesting and protection purposes. Most were on Pulau Pinang.
These were broken into three categories: 'recreational reserves'
(Boetong, Pulau Jerejak, and in part 'The Highlands'), "fuel reserves"
(NW Reserves and Pulau Jerejak) and "protection Reserves" (Ghinting, Penara,
'The Highlands', Main Ridge, Laksamana, and Feringgy).
Curtis's competency is exhibited in his 1892 Annual Report
that includes 'A list of the more important Plants and Trees flowered
in the Botanic Gardens, Penang, 1892,' that provides an extensive review
of the flowering species in the Gardens' collection. An exhaustive
compilation that precedes Ridley's published surveys of Malay Peninsula
flora. Two years later he published an "A Extensive Catalogue of
Flowering Plants and Ferns Found Growing Wild in the island of Penang"
in the Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society.
Containing 1,971 species of 793 genera and 129 natural order, it is a
significant record of Malaysian flora (Curtis 1894a: 67-163;
1893: 15-18; 1894b: 10).
The Gardens, as distinct from the Forest Reserves, proved
Curtis' passion. This was a significant period for the development
of the Gardens. Curtis was presented with a tropical valley, a
senescent nutmeg plantation with associated structures, and a prominent
location on the trail to and at the foot of the 'Great Waterfall'.
While an avid and acknowledged botanist and plant collector he proved
himself to be a creative landscape designer in crafting the design and
development of these Gardens. The latter is an aspect overlooked
to date, and considered in this article. Curtis remained in the
position until Walter Fox (1858-1934) succeeded him.
Experimental
Gardens
Under Curtis three 'Experimental Gardens' were established,
including the 'Waterfall Nursery Gardens' (580 m) that was developed
into the Botanic Gardens, the 'Top Hill Nursery' (777 m) later renamed
the 'Government Bungalow Garden', and the ‘plains nursery,' later
comprising the Government Residency. Located at 579 m, with
an average annual rainfall in the 1890s of 381 cm, the site of the
Botanic Gardens embraces over 29 ha, comprising a significant middle
portion, of the Waterfall River valley below the actual Falls.
The heavy rainfall often resulted in management problems, and landslips
in the "steepest part of the grounds."
The third Botanic Gardens was eventually sited in the Waterfall
River valley on land acquired by the colonial government in 1884-85
for this purpose. Curtis records that much of this land was owned
by a Mr Hogan. The flatter portions of the Gardens' site provided
for nutmeg plantations. Joliffe's 'Nutmeg Plantation - Pinang'
(c.1850) features extensive plantations in this valley with the Waterfall
in the background. Edward Hodges Cree (1814-1901) painted a scene,
including swimmers, in May 1845, where the "... stream tumbles down 30
to 40 feet [9-12 m] amongst rocks and trees in a narrow glen-wooded with
thick jungle. There is a pretty peep over the plain, town and harbour
to the opposite shore of Kedah. A great quantity of sensitive plant
covers the ground and there are fine nutmeg plantations." His watercolour
depicts part of the Waterfall River ravine and cascades, most likely in
the middle reaches of the present Gardens, flanked by nutmeg trees.
"Happy Hour" for monkeys - Photo by Tan Joo Beng
The origins of Curtis' ideas
as to the landscape design and laying out of the Gardens is unclear.
His associations with James Veitch & Sons ensured a keen botanical
knowledge and sense of inquiry, and his travels throughout Asia and
the Indian Ocean exposed him to other recently created botanic or experimental
gardens. .
His crafting of the Gardens and his writings about its development
display, however, a keen sense of design and aesthetic considerations.
This was later recognised by some of his colleagues and supervisors
following his retirement, but is evident in his articulation of a
design vision for the Gardens upon his arrival in George Town.
This conclusion is reinforced in the execution of these ideas.
In particular, his care to capture and frame views around the Gardens
and to the Waterfall, the desire to create a carriage circuit to enable
recreational journeys through the Gardens, his use of locally quarried
white granite as much as possible in structures and walling, and in
his clear intent to present plants in associative groups while permitting
the tropical rainforest to intrude within the Gardens rather than simply
edging the grounds.
Newly appointed Superintendent Fox reflected in 1904 that
Curtis' administration was one of important developments in Penang:
... In Curtis's retirement the Government loses an able
conscientious and hardworking officer. It falls to the lot of
few men on their retirement to leave their life's work in so visible
and concrete a form. Eighteen years ago the site of the present
beautiful Gardens was practically a waste ground. It is now the
pride of the Colony and the admiration of all who visits it.
Director of the Singapore Botanic Gardens, Cantley, wrote
of the Penang Botanic Gardens, in 1885, that they:
... rival those of Singapore in some respects, owing chiefly
to the scope which a command of temperature and climate gives them.
In addition to its general usefulness, the
Waterfall Garden acts as the emporium of all plants arriving for Penang
and Province Wellesley, and in a great measure for the Native States.
In the latter capability, its utility is only becoming known, and
I think it has a future to which the Singaporean Gardens cannot aspire.
Ridley equally, in 1910,
recorded that "Mr Curtis was a man full of energy and skill as a landscape
gardener and was not to be daunted by difficulties." An obituary
to Curtis in The Gardens' Bulletin, prepared by Ridley, records:
"From the first, however, some ornamental gardening was carried out,
and it soon developed into a garden of great beauty, in its naturally
beautiful setting."
A World Heritage
Nomination
While the significance of the extant colonial enclave of George
Town is the central core of considerations and discussions at this
conference, I would venture the following recommendations and thoughts
as conclusions for this paper.
In the first instance the built fabric and cultural continuity
evidence and history of George Town is not in dispute. Rather,
this is the foundation upon which much of the Acheh Street, Armenian
Street, Kapitan Keling Mosque Road, and Little India Historic Enclave
Action Plan (1997) was predicated and developed within the ambit of.
But the colonial settlement of George Town represents a cultural landscape
and not simply a ‘township'. It was a colonial settlement dependent
upon a rich and diverse melting pot of cultures and architectures and exchanges;
it was also strongly dependent upon its port and entrépôt
role, and influenced by its island location.
But the settlement cannot be divorced from its direct cultural
links to the Penang ‘Waterfall' Gardens and the Penang Hill.
The former provided the reliable water source for the settlement but
also facilitated the horticultural and botanical advancement and standing
of the settlement. It also provided a significant social and
recreational venue within the cultural life of the settlement.
In the same instance, Penang Hill provided an outpost venue for colonial
administration and was an indirect contributor and participant in the
colonial horticultural and botanical advancement of the settlement.
The two places are therefore integral to, subservient
to, and part of the immediate cultural landscape of George Town.
They existed with, were directly created as a consequence of, and synergistically
grew with the settlement, and still today are integral parts of the
George Town cultural landscape. They cannot and should not
be divorced from a definition of the George Town cultural landscape.
They would provide additional contributory weight to any world heritage
nomination for George Town as they are unique associative and contributive
pieces of its cultural landscape assemblage, and comparable pieces not
contained within any other nomination and listing to date. It
would be the first time that specifically a botanic garden - as distinct
from a series of gardens and designed landscapes - is included in a nomination,
whereas ‘hill-stations' and hill-townships are more commonly recognised
in several European listings.
Further, in several recent World Heritage nominations, assemblages
of sites - irrespective of distance and temporal continuity - have
been adopted and are in discussion stages. The proposal for a
World Heritage nomination of convict serial sites in Australia provides
a case in point (Pearson 2000), as is also the listed Classical Gardens
of Suzhou (1997/2000) in China.
For these reasons I would argue for consideration of the Gardens
and the Hill within a possible World Heritage nomination for George
Town. #
Extracts from a paper read at The Penang Story International
Conference 2002 held in Penang. Readers can access the paper at
the website of The Penang Story. Bibliographical references have
been omitted.
Colonial Botanic Gardens and World Heritage: the significance
of the Penang ‘Waterfall' Botanic Gardens
Dr David Jones
Associate Dean (Academic), School of Architecture, Landscape
Architecture & Urban Design, Adelaide University Colonial
Email david.jones@adelaide.edu.au
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