History
Hang Li Po and all that
- the Ming texts (Part 4)
by Geoff Wade
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History
Hang Li Po and all that by Geoff Wade |
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6. Huo-zhe Ya-san, Khoja Hassan, Cojacao A most enigmatic MSL reference occurs in 1529, where it is noted that "Previously, the Fo-Iang-ji person Huo-zhe Ya-san and others were executed and the Guang-dong authorities banned the ships coming from Annam, Melaka and the various fan."95 In the same reference, it is further noted that "The Fo-Iang-ji first came during the Zheng-de reign (1506-21), but as Ya-san and the others acted in illegal ways, they were executed and driven off." Who, then, was this mysterious "Huo-zhe Ya-san"? The MSL adds nothing else, but some further references to this person can be gleaned from other Chinese texts. In the "Fo-lang-ji" section of Shu-yu Zhou-zi Lu of 1574, for example, the following is recorded. In the 14th year of the Zheng-de reign of our dynasty (1518/19), senior ministers of Fo-lang-ji assassinated their country's ruler and sent Bi-jia-dan Mo (Jia-bi-dan Mo) and others, a total of 30 persons, to submit tribute and request enfeoffinent. Among these was Huo-zhe Ya-san, originally a Chinese, who had long served that country. When they arrived in Nan-jing, he was quite artful. At that time the Emperor Wu-zong was on a southern inspection tour, and Jiang Bin was attending him. He led Ya-san to visit the emperor. The emperor liked him and retained him. Ya-san then accompanied the emperor to Bei-jing. When he entered the Translators Institute, he did not perform the kneeling ritual. Further, he deceitfully claimed to be an envoy from the country of Melaka, and when having an audience at Court he wished to be placed above all the other various yi. The Bureau Secretary Liang Zhuo detained and investigated him and then had him caned... It happened that at that time a Muslim called Xie-yi Hu-xian (Sayyid Hussain) had, in respect of tribute matters, made false accusations against military and civil officials in Gan-su. Both Ya-san and Hu-xian presumed upon Bin's power, galloping horses in the market place, enjoying the meals of senior officials in the Ministry of Punishment, riding in carriages, eating the remainders of the rare delicacies served at the hostel for visiting envoys, and sleeping and rising with servants and officials. |
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| Further,
all of the
senior officials against whom they made false accusations were
fettered or imprisoned.
They were quite inclined to insulting and ridiculing court
officials. On
one occasion, Zhuo employed the law to restrain them, and the two
yi persons said:
"The emperor allows this. Are you, Mister Secretary, going to
disallow it?" Bin
heard of this and, claiming that Zhuo had maltreated imperial
personnel,
memorialized seeking punishment. At that time, Wu-zong passed
away and the Empress Dowager commanded that Bin be executed.
Also, the king of Melaka had
complained that the Fo-lang-ji had seized his country and engaged
in killing. Thus, the
censors Qiu Dao-long and He Ao advised: "The Fo-lang-ji have
acted
rebelliously, declared themselves masters, driven off a country's
king, seized and eaten
children, acted violently and cruelly and brought disaster to the
people of Guang-dong... They should be immediately driven away
beyond the borders, the walls and
buildings they have constructed should be razed, and there should
be thorough
investigation and punishment. The artisans and merchants [there]
should be
charged with the crime of having dealings with
foreign yi." These proposals
were all approved by imperial command and the chief evil-doers
Huo-zhe and so on
were executed.96
The Ming Shi, the official history of the Ming dynasty, compiled in the late 17th and early 18th century on the basis of official Ming documents, records the following: Fo-lang-ji is
near Melaka. During the Zheng-de reign (1506-21), they occupied
Melaka's territory and drove off the ruler....
When Emperor Wu-zong went on a southern tour, their envoy Huo-zhe
Ya-san,
through Jiang Bin, came to attend upon the emperor. The emperor
studied his
[Huo-zhe Ya-san's] language as a diversion... As he served the emperor,
Ya-san
became very haughty. He followed the emperor to the capital and
resided at the
hostel for visiting envoys. On meeting the supervising secretary
Liang Zhuo, he did
not bow and kneel. Zhuo was angered and had him caned. Bin
strongly abused
him [Zhuo], saying: 'If you had romped with the emperor, would
you be willing
to kneel to a minor official like yourself?" In the following
year, Wu-zong died
and Ya-san was sent for investigation. He then
claimed that he was
originally Chinese, but that he served the fan [foreign] people.
He was executed...97
So, who was this "Huo-zhe Ya-san", who was associated with the Portuguese mission to China in 1520, who subsequently became a close confidant of the Chinese emperor, who cavorted arrogantly around Bei-jing, and who claimed both to be an envoy of Melaka, and that he was originally Chinese? We see in the letter sent by Christovao Vieyra, the Portuguese captive in Canton mentioned above, some details which may also relate to this enigmatic person. Vieyra notes that in 1521 the head of the mission sent to China by the ruler of Melaka, then based at Bentan, was named "Tuao Mafamet".98 He may well have been the Tun Mahmud mentioned in Sejarah Melayu who was appointed as kepala bentara after 1511, and who was also known as Tun Muhammad.99 Two other Melakan envoys in China at this time are mentioned in the letter - Tuao Healie100 and Tuao Alemancet101. |
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| These names
probably represent
Tun Ali and Tun Ali Majid respectively, and they may refer (although
this is certainly not
confirmed) to the same person. Then, in a reference to events in 1523,
the letter notes: On receipt of
this letter [from the ruler of Melaka], the mandarins entered
Cantao, and there proceeded to dispatch them once
more, saying that the ambassadors, viz. Tuao Mafamet and Cojacao,
and their company
were to go to Bintao, the junk being already made, and if they
did not wish
to go they would not give them provisions. They replied that they
could not
go, that they might kill them and do what they pleased. It was later noted that one. of the ambassadors from Melaka left China in 1524. Here then we have the sudden appearance of someone called Cojacao, noted by the Portuguese as an ambassador of Melaka. Pelliot102 has already demonstrated that "Cojacao" must be a Portuguese rendering of the name Khoja Hassan, with the "H" of Hassan devoiced. He suggests that Huo-zhe Ya-san and Cojacao referred to the same person. When we look at Sejarah Melayu, we see that the laksamana under Sultan Mahmud, named Khoja Husain, who was the son-in-law of Hang Tuah, was also known as Khoja Hassan.103 It was he who, after accepting bribes, reported to Mahmud Shah that the Bendahara Sri Maharaja was planning treason, which resulted in the execution of the bendahara and his family. When the falseness of the claims became known, Sultan Mahmud ordered that Khoja Hassan be castrated. The Sejarah Melayu noted "Adapun akan laksamana Chodja Hassan pun telah mati dengan pertjintaannja, maka ditanamkan orang di Gua Pantar."104 That is to say, he died of grief and was buried in Gua Pantar. The Brown translation of Sejarah Melayu gives his place of burial at Bukit Pantau.105 It is interesting to note that the two versions give different places of burial, neither of which has been identified by modern scholars, and that neither edition notes where he died. The possibility of Khoja Hassan having been in some sort of league with the Portuguese prior to their occupation of Melaka is suggested by an incident reported by Tome Pires in Suma Oriental, where Laksamana Khoja Hassan was ordered by the sultan to kill the Portuguese who, led by Diogo Lopes de Sequeira, had arrived at Melaka.106 The laksamana replied, according to Tome Pires' text: "This business is contrary to justice and I do not want to be in it, and I tell you that I would rather fight against a thousand such men than against these, not because I fear them, but because my heart is not in such a decision."107 The expression of such sentiments, in direct opposition to a sultan's orders, appears almost incredulous. Was Tome' Pires trying to obliquely indicate that Khoja Hassan was in fact a sympathizer with or supporter of the Portuguese? In trying to make some sense of the various sources noted above, one possible scenario is as follows: Khoja Hassan or Khoja Hussain, the son-in-law of Hang Tuah, was Chinese or part Chinese. He succeeded his father-in-law as Laksamana of Melaka. For some reason, possibly not unconnected with his castration by the sultan, he was supportive of Portuguese efforts to trade in Melaka. Subsequently, after the fall of Melaka, he served the Portuguese administration in that city, or acted as a mediator between the Melaka court in exile and the Portuguese. He participated in the Portuguese mission to China in the early 1520s, which was led by Tome Pires, and while in China Khoja Hussain became close with the emperor and used that connection to gambol in the capital with Sayyid Husain, a Muslim from central Asia. He obviously maintained contacts with the Melaka ambassadors, who had been sent separately to China, and in fact is cited by two sources as having been, or having claimed to be, an envoy from Melaka. He was likely executed in China following the death of the Wu-zong emperor in 1521, for his connections with the Portuguese and with Jiang Bin, but his body may have been taken back to Southeast Asia for burial. Such a scenario is of course very tentative and I would welcome comments and criticisms. 7. Other Ming Chinese Texts on Melaka Above, I have concentrated on the Ming Shi-lu, because of its great importance as the primary Ming chronicle. However, there are a large number of other Ming texts which contain references to Melaka. Some of these contain details of social life in Melaka and below are cited a few snippets showing the type of information which can be gleaned from these texts. Details of their dates and authors are given in Appendix I.
i) Ying-yai Slieng-lan
There is no need to dwell on this work as it is
available in an excellent translation by Dr. Mills.108 Suffice it to say
that it was written by a person who accompanied the Chinese eunuch-led
maritime missions to Southeast Asia and beyond and had personal
experience of Melaka in the early 15lh century. Much attention is given
to describing the ruler, with it being noted that the king and the
people arc Muslims. The ruler's dress is also recorded, with it being
stated that he wore a long green robe and wrapped his head with fine
white cloth. When he went out, he rode in a sedan chair. In addition,
the products and animals of Melaka and even the belief in hantu
pontianak are mentioned.
ii) Xing-cha Sheng-lan
This work was also written on the basis of the
eunuch-led voyages in the early 15th century. It notes that Melaka was
formerly subject to Siam, to which it annually gave tribute. There was
little agriculture practiced, but people panned for tin in the
mountains. Tin, it notes, was Melaka's sole product. The people of the
polity are recorded as being of two types - dark-skinned people and
light-skinned people - the latter being descendants of Chinese. Stilt
dwellings are also detailed. Much of what is contained in Ying-yai
Sheng-lan is repeated in this work.
iii) Zheng He Hang-hai Tu
This comprises a collection of maps showing the
routes taken by the Chinese ships in their ocean voyages in the early
15th century, and includes the map showing Melaka reproduced as Appendix
IV. One should note the "government depot" which is indicated north of the Melaka river. This was the
depot used by the Chinese maritime missions. Another such store was
located near to Samudera at the top of the Straits of Melaka. Thus the
control of the Straits of Melaka was recognized as important even in the
early 15th century. Precisely where the Melaka depot was located has not
been ascertained. There is an urgent need for a full archaeological
survey of modern-day Melaka and its environs to locate such
important historic sites.
iv) Huan-yu Tong-zlri
This is an interesting text as it notes that in 1405,
the king of the country of Melaka, named Ma-er-hu-bu, brought his family
to the Chinese court. I cannot explain this name and can only assume it
to be an error.
v) Da Ming Yi-tong-zhi
This text notes that the first ruler of Melaka to
send an envoy to China was Xi-Ii Ba-er-su-Ia in 1405 and that his heir
Bai-Ii-mi-su-Ia brought his family to China in 1411. Both seem to be
representations of Parameswara. This suggests that two persons bore this
title, but the accuracy of this claim requires further investigation.
This text also gives the date of the death of Sultan Muzzafar Shah as
1459.
vi) Da Ming Hui-dian
This includes a long listing of the trade products
which could be obtained in Melaka, including all sorts of aromatics,
ivory, rhinoceros horn, parrots, black bears, cloth and "small black
slaves."
vii) Hai-yu
This text records that the buildings in Melaka
resembled halls in China, but that the ordinary people lived in houses
made of earth. There is also mention of orang kaya and nakhodas. It is
stated that the people of Melaka wrote using "Indian script". The
marriage customs are recorded with it being noted that the bride
provided a dowry and 5 or 6 slaves. The importance of women in commerce
is noted, as is the existence of a pasar malam. Capital punishment, so
we are told, involved inserting a sharpened stick into the anus of the
criminal and running it through his body. This is the punishment of "sula".
After death, the Hai-yu informs us, bodies were burned, which reflects
the persistence of pre-Islamic rituals.
vii) Huang-yu Kao
This work is of particular interest as it notes some
of the vocabulary of Melaka, represented phonetically in Chinese
characters. The terms included: Heaven = Allah, earth = bumi, day =
hari, and moon = bulan.
Many of the other texts simply repeat or rearrange the information in these major ' texts noted above.
Conclusions
Why then are we looking at events 500 years ago? Is
this pure antiquarianism, or has it some relevance for the present and
the future? In every society, we define ourselves in terms of our pasts.
In fact, in many ways we are nothing but the products of our pasts. The
Melaka Sultanate has always had a special place in the history of the
people of Malaysia, and the study of the history of Melaka is a
mandatory element in Malaysian schools. By examining the Chinese sources
on Melaka, we can look back before the coming of the historiographical
traditions which gave rise to Sejarah Melayu. What then can we say about
Melaka in the 15th century? There are number of salient points which need to be mentioned.
1. It was a place peopled by immigrants.
These included Malay immigrants from Sumatra, Bugis from Sulawesi,
Tamils from Tamil Nadu, Chinese from Fu-jian and Guang-dong, Bengalis,
Parsees, Arabs, Chams and Javanese.
2. It was a place of some cultural and spiritual diversity, with a multitude of beliefs and practices existing side by side. 3. It was a place with many international links, but skilled in maintaining, its own independence. Is any of this relevant today? To what degree does modern Malaysia manifest these elements? The history of Melaka we have observed does not support a dichotomy between "indigenous" and "immigrant". The polities on the peninsula since the time of Melaka have been built by a wide variety of peoples, mostly immigrants from the archipelago and other parts of Asia. Fortunately, the need for national integration and the harmful effects of dividing Malaysians into two camps have already been recognized by the administration, as evidenced by the recent calls by senior ministers stressing instead the need to create a "bangsa Malaysia"
What then can we say in conclusion about the Ming
texts on Melaka? First, the Ming Shi-lu overshadows all others in
importance. Its chronology is precise and it is the primary text
available to us, having been compiled not long after the events
themselves, on the basis of original contemporary documents. The MSL
provides us with detailed data useful primarily for reconstructing the
political history of Melaka.
The other Chinese texts provide us with further information on the society of Melaka, its natural history and its trade. These works, despite the prejudices which inform them, provide the only contemporary textual evidence of Melaka in the 15th century. Are the Chinese texts relating to Melaka more "true", more "reliable", more "objective", or more "authentic" than other histories? All of these are extremely difficult terms to define, especially in a historical context. Let us simply say that what is recorded in the Chinese texts is recorded from perspectives and prejudices which differed from those which guided the writings on Melaka by Malay and Portuguese authors. Individual historians can decide, on the basis of their own agendas, how useful each source is to his or her undertaking. Notes
MSL - Ming Shi-lu (Ming Imperial Annals)
95 Ming Shi-zong Shi-hi. juan 106.5a (76-2507).
96 Yan Cong-jian, Shiu-yu Zhou-zi Lu. Bei-jing,
Zhong-hua Shu-ju, 1993, jutw 9, pp. 320-25.
97 Ming Shi, Bei-jing, Zhong-hua Shu-ju, 1974. See
juan 325.
98 Ferguson, Letters from Portuguese Captives, p.
113.
99 Brown (trans.), Sejarah Melayu, p. 165.
100 Ferguson, ibid, p. 114.
101 Ferguson, ibid, p. 115.
102 P. Pelliot, "Le Hoja et Ie Sayyid Husain de
l'histoire des Ming" in T'oung Pao. Vol. XXXVII (1948), pp. 81-210.
Seep. 194.
103 Situmorang and Teeuw, Sejarah Melayu menurut
terbitan Abdullah, p, 255.
104 Ibid. p. 302.
105 Brown (trans.), Sejarah Melayu, p. 165.
106 For one account of this mission, see M.J.
Pintado, "Misi Kebajikan, Keamanan, dan Perdagangan Diego Lopes de
Sequiera 1509", in Ismail Hussein et al. (eds.), Tamadun Melayu : Jilid
Tiga, Kuala Lumpur, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka 1995, pp. 963-984.
107 Tomes Pires, Suma Oriental, p. 257.
108 J.V.G. Mills, Mo Hutm. Ying-yai Sheng-lan: The
Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores [1433], Hakluyt Society Extra
Series No. XLII, Cambridge, 1970
From "Malacca in Ming Dynasty Texts" by Dr Geff Wade, Centre of Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong, published in Vol. 70, Journal of the Malaysian Branch, Royal Asiatic Society (JMBRAS). . Published by permission of the author APPENDIX I - SOME MING TEXTS CONTAINING REFERENCES TO MELAKA 1. Ming Shi-lu (1418 - early 17th Cent.) (Veritable Records of the Ming Dynasty) An official work in annalistic (chronological) format. For dates of compilation of the shi-lu of successive emperors, and references to Melaka contained therein, see Appendices II and III, respectively. 2. Xing-cha Sheng-lan (Wonderous Observations from the Starry Raft) A private account, written by Fei Xin, detailing the countries visited by the Chinese maritime voyages to Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean in the early 15th century. Fei Xin also participated in some of the voyages. The account of Melaka is contained in Part 1. An English translation of the account of Melaka is available in J.V.G. Mills (trans.), R Ptak (ed.), Hsing-ch'a sheng-lan: The Overall Survey of the Star Raft,
Harrassowitz Verlag, Weisbaden, 1996, pp. 53-55.
3. Ying-yai Sheng-lan (1451) (Wonderous Observations of the Ocean's Shores) A private account of the countries of Southeast Asia, South Asia and the Middle East written by Ma Huan, who accompanied the eunuch-led maritime voyages in the early 15th century. An English translation of the account of Melaka can be seen in J.V.G. Mills' Ma Huan: Ying-yai Sheng-lan - The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores [1433], pp 108-114.
4. Zheng He Hang-hai Tu (first half of 15th
century?) (A Map of Zheng He's Maritime Voyages) An anonymous
series of maps depicting the routes used by the eunuch Zheng He and
colleagues on their maritime voyages. Melaka is depicted on page 16a
(See Appendix IV). The maps are found in juan 240 of Wu-bei zhi (See No;
26 below).
5. Huan-yu Tong-zhi (1456) (An Overall
Account of the Empire's Geography) Official geography of the Ming
empire and surrounding areas. Compilation ordered during the Hong-wu
reign (1368-98). Completed in 1456 under supervision of Chen Xun and
others. The account of Melaka is contained in juan 118.
6. Ming Yi-tong-zhi (1461) (A Unified Account of
the Ming Empire) Official geography of the Ming empire, compiled under
the direction of Li Xian. The account of Melaka is contained in juan 90.
7. Qian-wen-ji (c. 1500) (A Record of Things
Heard About the Past) A private compilation by Zhu Yun-ming ,
comprising miscellaneous notes on Ming history until the end of the 15th
century. Melaka is mentioned in the section detailing the itinerary of
the
maritime voyages in the early 15th century (pp.
74-75).
8. Da Ming Hui-dian (1503) (Collected Statutes of
the Great Ming) Imperially-commissioned collection of laws, instructions
and statutes of the Ming dynasty. Original edition edited under
direction of Xu Pu The account of Melaka is contained in juan 106.
9. Xi-yang Chao-gong Dian-lu (1520) (Account of
the Tributaries from the Western Ocean) A private compilation by Huang
Xing-zeng, comprising notes on 23 countries in Southeast Asia and along
the coast of the Indian Ocean. Notes on Melaka can be found in Parts 1
and 2.
10. Hai-yu (1536) (An Account of the Seas) A
private compilation by Huang Zhong , recording the customs of Siam and
Melaka, maritime products and unusual tales from the maritime realm. The
account of Melaka is contained in Part 1. This has been translated by
W.P. Groenesveldt in his Notes on the Malay Archipelago and Malacca
Compiled from Chinese Sources, pp. 126-128.
11. Guang-yu-tu (1541) (A General Geography with
Maps) Maps of China and bordering polities, accompanied by short
accounts of the places depicted. Compiled by Luo Hong-xian, based on an
earlier atlas by Zhu Si-ben. Melaka is noted in
juan 1 and 2.
12. Huang-yu Kao (1557) (An investigation of the
Empire's Geography) A geography of the Ming empire and surrounding
polities compiled by Zhang Tian-fu. Melaka is noted in juan 12.
13. Huang Ming Hong-you-lu (1557) (A Record of the
Great Ming Undertaking) A record of major events during the Ming up
until 1550. Private compilation by Gao Dai . References to Melaka can be
found in juan 6.
14. Chou-haiTu-Bian (1561-62) (An Illustrated
Compendium on Coastal Defences) Maps and other materials relating to
Ming coastal defences, compiled by Zheng Ruo-zeng . Materials on Melaka
are contained in juan 12.
15. Shu-yu Zhou-zi-lu (1574) (A Comprehensive
Enquiry Into Foreign Lands) An account of various foreign lands and
their relations with China, compiled by Yan Cong-jian . Materials on
Melaka are contained in juan 5, 8, 9 and 15.
16. Tu-shu-bian (1613) A large and
wide-ranging encyclopaedia which includes accounts of foreign polities.
Compiled between 1562 and 1577 by Zhang Hong . References to Melaka are
contained in juan 59 and 60.
17. Si-yi-guan kao (1580-1695) (A Study of the
Translators Institute) Several works of the same title exist. All
contain references to Melaka. The 2-juan work by Wang Zong-zai is dated
1580. References to Melaka can be found in both the first and second
juan.
18. Hua-yi Hua-mu Niao-shou Zhen-wan Kao (late 16th
Cent?) (A Study of the Botany, Zoology and Minerals of China and Yi
Lands) This work, which was compiled by Shen Mao-guan is reported to
contain references to Melaka in juan 7, 9, and 10. I have not sighted
a copy.
19. Ming Xu Wen-xian Tong-kao (1586) A
political encyclopaedia continuing a Song work Wen-xian Tong-kao, and
containing accounts of lands beyond China. Compiled by Wang Qi. The
account of Melaka is contained in juan 236.
20. Xian-bian-lu (1591 (An Account of the Various
Tributaries) An account of foreign peoples and their relations with
China, compiled by Luo Yue-qiong . References to Melaka are contained
in juan 3 and 6.
21. Ben-cao Gang-mu (1596) (A General Outline of
Materia Medica) A detailed pharmacopoeia recording the various
materials used in traditional medicine, their sources and historical
references to them. Compiled by Li Shi-zhen .A reference to Melaka is
to be found in juan 8.
22. San-cai Tu-hui (1609) (An Illustrated
Collection of the Three Powers) Illustrated encyclopaedia divided into
14 sections on basis of the "three powers" (Heaven,
earth and man). Compiled by Wang Qi. An account of Melaka can be found
in "Geography" juan 13.
23. Si-yi Guang-ji (early 17th C.) (A
Comprehensive Account of the Yi in the Four Directions) A manuscript
treatise on foreign peoples and their relations with China, compiled by
Shen Mou-shang. This manuscript is not divided into juan and is not
paginated, but an account of Melaka is contained in the "Hai-guo
Guang-ji" section.
24. Yi-sheng (1615) (An Account of Those Beyond
the Borders) Historical notes on the peoples of foreign countries and
their relations with China. Compiled by Yang I-kui .An account of Melaka
is contained in juan 2.
25. Dong-xi-yang Kao (1617) (A Study of the
Eastern and Western Oceans). An important study of the maritime
countries of Southeast Asia and East Asia compiled by Zhang Xie .
Numerous references to Melaka are contained in juan 2-5, 9, 11 and 12.
26. Wu-beizhi .(1621) (An Account of Military
Defences) An account of military weapons, tactics, defences and
organization from the earliest dynasties until the Ming, compiled by Mao
Yuan-yi. References to Melaka are contained in juan 223, 227 and
235-237. The maps which constitute Zheng He Hang-hai Tu, noted as Item
Number 4 in this listing, are taken from juan 240 of this work.
27. Hua-yi Feng-tu Ji (First half of 17th C.) (A
Collection of the Customs of the Chinese and the Yi) This work was
compiled by Hu Wen-huan (ifi X. &) . I have not sighted a copy of this
text, but it is reported that there are references to Melaka contained
in juan 4.
28. Huang Ming Xiang-xu-lu (1629) (An Account
of the Bordering Polities of the Ming Empire) A treatise on the
areas surrounding China, compiled by Mao Rui-cheng References to
Melaka are contained in juan 1, 4 and 5.
29. Huang Ming Shi-fa Lu (1630) (Account of the
Statutes of Successive Reigns of the Ming Emperors) A political
encyclopaedia of the Ming dynasty, including edicts, institutions and
details of peoples beyond the borders. Compiled by Chen Ren-xi.
References to Melaka are contained in juan 81 and 82.
30. Guo-que (c. 1653) (An Account of the Country)
A work in the annalistic (chronological) pattern covering the whole Ming
period, compiled by Tan Qian. References to Melaka are scattered
throughout the work
31. Ming Shi (1736) (History of the Ming Dynasty)
The official standard history of the Ming dynasty. Compiled during the
Qing dynasty under supervision of Zhang Ting-yu.References to Melaka can
be found in juan 6-14, 81, 79,183, 200, 304, 306, 321, 323, 326 and 332.
Two important anonymous works, the provenances of
which are unclear, are:
A work entitled Ge-guo Yi-yu (The Translated Vocabularies of Various Countries) held in the library of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. Within this work is contained a vocabulary of Malacca Malay, phonetically transcribed into Chinese characters. This listing of 482 terms has been translated and published by E.D. Edwards and CO. Blagden under the title "A Chinese Vocabulary of Malacca Malay Word and Phrases between A.D. 1403 and 1511 (?)" in Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol VI, pt 3, pp. 715-749. The manuscript bears the date 1549, but given that the work contains the terms for conducting the tribute-trade relationship with China, it is likely that the vocabulary was compiled sometime in the 15th century, and probably in the first half of that century. A nautical compendium entitled Shun-feng Xiang-song, compiled initially, it is thought, in the 15th century, but including later additions. It contains sailing instructions for 100 voyages, including many in Southeast Asia. Of particular interest here are the following routes:
i. From Guang-dong in China to Melaka and return.
ii. From Siam to Pahang and Melaka and return.
iii. From Melaka to Aceh.
iv. From Melaka to Palembang.
The text is included in a work edited by Xiang Da,
entitled Liang-zhong Hai-dao Zhen-jing, published in Bei-jing in 1961
and reprinted in 1982.
The routes mentioned are to be found on pp. 55-56,
61-62, 75-76 and 85-86. An English summary of the major routes is given
in J.V.G. Mills' "Chinese . Navigators in Insulinde about A.D. 1500"
carried in Archipel, Vol. 8 (1979) pp. 69-92.
This listing was compiled with the assistance of:
1 Wolfgang Franke, An Introduction to the Sources
of Ming History, University of Malaya Press, Kuala Lumpur, 1968.
2. Chen Jia-rong, Xie Fang and Lu Jun-ling,
Gu-dai Nan-hai Di-ming Hui-shi, Zhong-hua Shu-ju, Bei-jing, 1986.
Addendum
Since this lecture was given in November 1995, a
major new publication has appeared. Entitled Lembaran Sejarah Gemilang:
Hubungan Empayar Melaka-Dinasti Ming, this work by Professor Liang Liji
of Beijing provides a historical background to the links between Melaka
and the Ming court (pp. 13-41), a summary of Ming Shi-lu references to
Melaka (pp. 42-81), and a study of the use of the Malay language in
Melaka-Ming relations, including the Malay vocabulary list from Ge-guo
Yi-yu mentioned above (pp 82-129). The work was published by Penerbit
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, in 1996. See also Prof. Chen Hok-lam:
Malacca in Chinese Historiography in A Festschrift in Honour of
Professor Jao Tsung-i... , Chinese University of Hongkong, 1993
APPENDIX II - DATES OF COMPILATION OF SUCCESSIVE
SHI-LU OF THE MING DYNASTY
Shi-lu Reign title Period included Date of compilation of extant version
Tai-zu Hong-wu
May 1351 to 24Junl398
1418
Tai-zong
Yong-le
24 Jun l398 to 3 Sep 1424 1430
Ren-zong
Hong-xi
25 Aug 1424 to 29 May 1425
1430
Xuan-zong
Xuan-de
16 Jun l425 to 31 Jan 1435 1438
Ying-zong
Zheng-tong 29 Jan 1435 to 23
Feb 1464 1467
Jing-tai
Tian-shun
Xian-zong Cheng-hua 23 Feb 1464 to 9
Sep 1487 1491
Xiao-zong Hong-zhi 9 Sep 1487 to 8
Jun 1505 1509
Wu-zong Zheng-de 9 Jun 1505 to 27
May 1521 1525
Shi-zong Jia-jing 27 May 1521
to 23 Jan 1567 1577
Mu-zong Long-qing 24 Jan 1567 to 5
Jul 1572 1574
Shen-zong Wan-li 5 Jul 1572 to
18 Aug 1620 1630
Guang-zong Tai-chang 19 Aug 1620 to 25
Sep 1620 1623
Xi-zong Tian-qi 22 Jan 1621
to 3 Feb 1628 1637
Si-zong Chong-zhen 7 Feb 1628 to 24
Apr 1644 late 17th C.
APPENDIX III
- PRECIS OF REFERENCES TO MELAKA CONTAINED IN THE
MING SHI-LU
Tai-zong
1403, Oct 28 - Ming court sends envoy to Melaka.
24.5b
1405, Oct 3 - Envoy sent by Bai-li-mi-su-la,
ruler of country of Melaka, comes to court with Chinese envoy to offer
tribute 46.2a-b
1405, Nov 11 - Mountain in Melaka enfeoffed as
'Mountain Protecting the Country'and inscription conferred. 47.4a-b
1407, Oct 2 - Envoy sent by Melaka offers
tribute. 71.1a
1407, Nov 20 - Noted that Melaka had complained
to court that Siam had been overbearing and had seized its seal
72.4b-5a
1408, Oct 17 - Zheng He and others sent as
envoys to Melaka and other places 83.3b
1409, Feb 16 - Envoy sent by Bai-li-mi-su-la
offers tribute to Ming court . 88.2a
1411, Aug 4 - Noted that Bai-li-mi-su-la was
corning to court to offer tribute 117.2a
1411, Aug 14 - Bai-li-mi-su-la of Melaka comes
to court with family and attendants, totalling 540 persons. 117.3b-4a
1411, Oct 2 - King of Melaka banqueted and
rewarded on departure. 119.2b-3a
1412, Jul 27 - Nephew of Bai-li-mi-su-la
comes to offer tribute. 129.3a
1412, Oct 20 - Nephew departs on return home.
Court sends eunuch envoy to confer rewards on king 132.2a
1412, Dec 18 - Zheng He and others sent as
envoys to Melaka etc. 134.3a
1413, Sep 20 - Nephew of Bai-li-mi-su-la comes
to court to offer tribute. 142.2b-3a
1413, Oct 1 - Noted that Melaka had asked
court for Old Port Territory. Not given. 143.1b
1414, Oct 5 - Mu-gan Sa-gan-di-er Sha, son
of king of Melaka, comes to court and advises that his father had died.
Emperor orders that Mu-gan Sa-gan-di-er Sha inherit position of king.
1552b-3a
1415, Oct 11 - Envoy from Melaka offers
tribute. 168.1b-2a
1416, Nov 19 - Envoy from Melaka offers
tribute. 182.1a
1416, Dec 28 - Zheng He and others sent to
reward king of Melaka and others 183.1a-2a
1418, Sep 3 - Elder brother of Mu-gan Sa-gan-di-er
Sha, offers tribute. 203.1b
1419, Sep 23 - Envoys sent by Yi-si-han-da-er
Sha, king of Melaka, offer tribute 216.1a
1419, Oct 30 - Ming court warns Siam against
carrying out its plan to send troops against Melaka 217.1a-b
1420, Oct 19 - Envoy sent by king of Melaka
offers tribute. 229.1b
1421, Feb 26 - Envoy sent by Melaka offers
tribute. 233.5a
1423, Oct 24 - Envoys sent by Melaka arrive at
capital. 263.2a
1424, Apr 20 - Xi-li Ma-ha-la-zha, king of
Melaka, comes to Ming court, offers tribute and advises that his father
had died and that he was now ruler 269.3b
1424, Apr 30 - King of Melaka departs on
return home. 270.1b
Ren-zong
1424, Dec 20 - Envoy sent by country of Melaka
offers tribute. 5a.1b
Xuan-zong
1426, Jun 18 - Envoy sent by .Xi-li Ma-ha-la-zha
offers tribute. 17.17a
1430, Jun 29 - Zheng He and others sent to
take orders and rewards to ruler of Melaka and others 67.3b-4a
1431, Mar 20 - Three chieftains from Melaka, who
came to China on Samuderan ship, advise that their king wants to come to
Court but has been obstructed by country of Siam. Request that court
sends orders restraining Siam. Emperor orders that the three chieftains
be sent home on Zheng He's ships. 76.6b-7a
1433, Nov 28 - Xi-li Ma-ha-la-zhe, king of
Melaka, arrives in Nan-jing. Ordered to rest in Nan-jing until
spring 106.1 1a-b
1434, May 26 - Xi-li Ma-ha-la-zhe and brother
La-dian Ba-Ia offer tribute 110.4b
1434, Jun 20 - Xi-li Ma-ha-la-zhe and others
richly rewarded and depart on return journey home 110.11a
Ying-zong
.
1435, Apr 11 - La-dian Ba-la, sent by elder
brother Xi-li Ma-ha-la-zhe offers tribute. 3.5a
1435, Apr 28 - Emperor advises king of Melaka
that Guang-dong province had been ordered to provide transport home for
him and envoys from other countries. 4.1a
1439, Apr 23 - Envoy sent by country of Melaka
offers tribute. 53.5b
1444, Dec 23 - Envoy sent by country of Melaka
offers tribute. 123.3a
1445, Mar 28 - Envoy sent by country of Melaka
offers tribute. 126.7a
1445, Apr 20 - Melaka envoy requests conferral
of headwear and belt Approved. 127.4a
1445, May 5 - Envoy from Melaka advises that
king of Melaka, named Xi-li Ba-ma-xi-wa-er Diu-ba Sha wished to be
provided with imperial letter of protection for the country, as well as
a ship in which to travel to China. Emperor orders that a ship be
provided. 127.10a-b
1455, May 30 - Envoy sent by Su-lu-tan Wu-da-fo-na
Sha, king of Melaka, offers tribute. 253.6a
1455, Sep 4 - Envoy sent by country of Melaka
offers tribute and requests replacement of ceremonial headwear and robes
previously conferred upon their king, which had been destroyed by
fire. 256.8a
1456, Jun 23 - Noted that Nai Ai, chief envoy
from Melaka, had committed rape and then killed himself. Deputy envoy
completed mission but on return journey officials claimed that Nai Ai's
children still had pearls and precious stones which should have been
given in tribute. Investigations ordered, but no such goods were found
in their possession. 266.8b
1459, Jul 7 - Envoy sent by Su-dan Mang-su
Sha, son of king of Melaka, offers tribute. 304.2a
1459, Sep 13 - Ming court sends envoy to
enfeoff Su-dan Mang-su Sha, son of deceased Su-lu-tan Wu-da-fo-na Sha,
as king of the country of Melaka. 306.5a-b
1461, Apr 27 - Ministry of Rites notes that the
ship on which the court envoys had been sent to Melaka had been damaged
at sea and that the envoys had been rescued by troops from Hai-nan. The
presents for conferral had been damaged and thus ministry suggested
that new silks be provided and that envoys continue on mission. Emperor
approves proposal. 326.4a-b
Xian-zong
1467, Oct 30 - Noted that mission to enfeoff
Su-lu-tan Wu-da-fo-na Sha had been completed some time previously.
47.1a-b
1468, Nov 2 - Envoy sent by Melaka offers
tribute. 59.5a
1469, Apr 25 - Envoy sent by Melaka offers
tribute. 65.3a
1469, Jun 6 - Envoy from Melaka rewarded.
66.7a
1471, Nov 28 - Noted that persons from Fukien had
sailed to Melaka and privately traded there. 97.7b
1473, May 3 - Ryukyu envoy notes that a ship
they had sent to Melaka to purchase tribute products had been damaged
and was waiting in Fukien. 115.2a
1475, Jan 21 - Court envoys to Champa, after
being unable to enter Champa due to its occupation by Annam forces,
sailed to trade in Melaka. At this time, they returned with envoy from
Melaka to offer tribute. 136.6a-b
1475, Jun 9 - Envoy sent by Melaka offers
tribute. Imperial orders sent to Su-dan Mang-su Sha, lauding him for
assisting Ming court envoy to Champa. 141.2b-3a
1481, Aug 23 - Court sends envoy to go and
enfeoff Ma-ha-mu Sha, son of Su-dan Mang-su Sha, as king of the country
of Melaka 217.5a
1481, Aug27 - Envoys sent by country of Melaka
offer tribute.Envoys request ceremonial headwear and belts. Approved by
emperor. 218.1a
1481, Sep 23 - Envoy from Melaka notes that in
1469/70, Melakan envoys returning from Chinese court had been captured
and killed in Annam. Also notes that Annam king, having captured Champa,
intended to annex Melaka's territory. Imperial orders sent to Melaka
requiring it to train forces to defend itself. 219.1a-b
1481, Nov 6 - Noted that court envoys sent to
Champa in 1478 had also gone to trade in Melaka before returning to
China. 220.4a-b
1484, Jan 26 - Court sends envoys to enfeoff
Ma-ha-mu Sha as king of the country of Melaka. Ordered as ships in which
envoys sent in 1481 had travelled had sunk and they had not reached
there. 252.7a
1485, Jun 25 - Noted that Samarkand envoys
intended to return home via Melaka in order to purchase a lion to offer
in tribute to China 266.3b
1485, Oct 7 - Deputy envoy sent by Ming court
in 1484 to enfeoff king of Melaka advised that senior court envoy had
died en route to Guang-dong. Court orders that a new official be
selected and that the mission proceed to Melaka. 269.7a-b
1487, Apr 16 - Deputy envoy who had been sent
to country of Melaka, returns with memorial from king of Melaka and
other goods offered as presents. 288.5b
1487, Apr 20 - Noted that A-li, a person from
Mecca, had brought large amounts of goods in Melaka and accompanied
court deputy envoy on his return to China. Claimed that he wished to
seek his brother in Yun-nan. Emperor considered him trader and ordered
that he be sent back to Canton. 288.8a
Xiao-zong
1489, Dec 10 - Noted that envoys from Samarkand
had come to court via Melaka and Canton. Presented lions, parrots and
other goods. 32.4a-b
1503, Oct 27 - Noted that Ryukyu envoy who had
been en route to Melaka had been shipwrecked off Hainan. 204.2a
1504, Dec 26 - Noted that Ryukyu ship on voyage
to Melaka to purchase tribute goods had sunk in Chinese waters.
218.9a
Wu-zong
1508, Dec 29 - Envoys sent by king of country of
Melaka offer tribute. Rewarded with dragon robes. 45.2b
1509, Jan 2 - Melakan envoy asks that Guang-dong
be ordered to repair their ship which had been damaged by typhoon.
Approved by emperor 45.3b.
1510, Mar 2 - Noted that one of the envoys from
Melaka, who was originally from Jiang-xi in China, plotted together with
Chinese officials in order to obtain false seal with which to extort
valuables from Brunei. Due to dispute, he killed his accomplices.
Discovered and executed. 59.4b-5a
1510, Sep 1 - Noted that ships from Melaka were
subject to proportional tax on their cargoes. 65.8b-9a
1514, Jun 27 - Noted that many of the aromatics,
ivory etc traded in Guang-dong originated from Melaka and other SE
Asian ports. 113.2a
1520, Oct 23 - Noted that both the Fo-lang-ji
(Portuguese) and Melaka had submitted documents which required attention
of emperor 191.1b-2b
1521, Jan 13 - Noted that previously the
Fo-lang-ji had seized Melaka. Chinese officials urged that Portuguese be
ordered to return the seized territory. 194.2b-3a
Shi-zong
1521, Jul 25 - Envoys from Melaka offer tribute
and are rewarded. 3.14b-15a
1521, Aug 31 - Noted that previously the
Portuguese had driven Sultan Mansur Shah away from Melaka. Portuguese
then sent an envoy to Chinese court, as did Melaka. Emperor orders that
Portuguese return Melaka's territory 4.27b.
1523, Apr 6 - Noted that previously Bie-du-lu
(Pedro) had plundered Melaka. At this time he was captured in China.
24.8a-b
1529, Nov 7 - Noted that previously the
Fo-lang-ji person named Huo-zhe Ya-san was executed for acting
illegally, and ships from Melaka and Annam were barred from China.
106-5a
1550, Sep 1 - Noted that previously fan persons
from Melaka enticed Chinese coastal people to accompany them on trading
missions across the ocean. Subsequently, they engaged in pillage and
were executed. 363.5b-6
1565, May 16 - Arrival noted of a yi chieftain
who first claimed to be from Melaka and then said that he was from
Pu-li-du-jia (Portugal) 545.5a.
Notes
1. This precis retains the concepts and
terminology presented in the Ming Shi-lu. It therefore represents the
Chinese court's perceptions of events, and should not be considered a
critical summary of Melakan-Ming links.
2. In this listing, the numbers on the right
indicate the juan and page numbers of the references in the respective
shi-lu. The letters 'a' and 'b' indicate the recto (front) and verso
(back) of the folio. Thus, 24.5b under Tai-zong refers to page 5 (verso)
of juan 24 in the Tai-zong Shi-lu.
3. The dates given are Julian, converted in
accordance with Keith Hazelton's A Synchronic Chinese-Western Daily
Calendar 1341-1661 A.D.
4. Full translations of all references can be
found in G.P. Wade, "The Ming Shi-lu (Veritable Records of the Ming
Dynasty) as a source for Southeast Asian History ù 14th to 17th
Centuries', Hong Kong University PhD Thesis 1994. Copies are available
from: The Librarian, University of Hong Kong.
Wade Appendix IV
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